Botanic Spice Index

This index allows to locate spices according to their botanical association. Systematic botany provides a hierarchical systems, where the different levels are named taxa; the highest taxon in this index is called division, which is a very large one as all spice plants belong to the same division seed plants (other divisions are, for example, Fungi, Mosses and Ferns). This is followed by class, order and family down to the species level. There are additional taxa, only those of which have been included that apply throughout (this means, there are no superorders nor subfamilies).

There are competing classification schemes; the one I am following here is given in the text book by Frohne and Jensen which is based both on botanical and chemical features of the plants.

Some minor spice plants which have no full spice article yet are also included, and their names link to very short descriptions in the geographical index.

Quick access to the subclasses:

Magnoliatae: Magnoliidae — Caryophyllidae — Hamamelididae — Rosidae — Asteridae — Dilleniidae — Cornidae — Lamiidae

Liliatae: Liliidae — Zingiberidae — Commelinidae — Arecidae

Since this index is valuable only for a reader familiar with systematic botany, I give only the most recent scientific name for each the plant. Synonyms for higher taxa are, however, included. Most browsers format multiply nested lists in a rather ugly way, but in order to stay standard-conforming, I have restrained from using special formatting tools.

The organization of the plant kingdom into different groups (taxa) with hierarchical interrelation is by no means a trivial or even just well defined task. The way it is done on this site is based on the Takhtajan system in the modifications proposed by Frohne and Jensen.

Any taxon is listed if and only if it contains at least one spice plant discussed here. The indentation levels of the different taxa and their total numbers are:

Division (1/1)
- Subdivision (2/2)
  - Class (3/3)
    - Subclass (13/13)
      - Order (31/44)
        Family (42/69)
        Species (117/196)

Division Spermatophyta
The division encompasses all plants that multiply by seeds.
- Subdivision Pinophytina = Coniferophytina = Gymnospermae = Gymnospermophytina = Pinicae
  The gymnosperms, or naked-seeded plants, are the very oldest plants that bear seeds. This subdivision gave rise to many species in the early mesozoic, but today about half of its classes are extinct. Many modern species live in ecological niches, where they can escape the competing Magnoliophytina.
  Several of the about 670 species are taxonomically isolated, e.g. the maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba).
  - Class Pinatae = Coniferopsida
    - Subclass Pinidae = Coniferae
      - Order Pinales
        The Pinales represent the overwhelming majority of all modern naked-seeded plants (500 species); they alone of all gymnosperms can be called ecologically successful. Many species produce odorous balms and resins.
        
        Family Pinaceae
        The largest gymnosperm family contains more than 300 species, most of which are found on the Northern hemisphere, where they grow from Arctic tundra regions to the highest elevations in the tropics. Essential oils and particular balms are very common.
        Pinus pinea (Stone pine)
        
        Family Cupressaceae
        135 species, distributed over all continents. Mostly trees and shrubs with evergreen needle-shaped leaves, often with essential oils. Further species include cypresses and thuja (Thuja orientalis).
        Juniperus communis (Juniper)
- Subdivision Magnoliophytina = Angiospermae = Angiospermophytina
  The angiosperms have their seed covered by a fruit; they derive from an extinct class of the Pinophytina. The extra protection offered to the seed has enormous advantages and lead to their present dominance over the gymnosperms. According to the counting scheme, 220000 to 250000 species are known.
  - Class Magnoliatae = Magnoliopsida = Dicotyledoneae
    Named after their two cotyledons, the dicots are the larger of the two classes of the angiosperms; they number about 170000 species. There are eight subclasses which share several features (two cotyledons, four or five petals, reticulate venation of leaves), but are nonetheless not the result of a single strain of evolution. Phylogenetic similarities are better represented by distinguishing between a first main group (encompassing the subclasses Magnoliidae and Caryophyllidae showing close connections to the second class, Liliatae) and a second main group, which contains the other seven subclasses, of which the Hamamelididae is the most basic.
    - Subclass Magnoliidae = Polycarpicae
      Among the 12000 species of Magnoliidae we find several of the most primitive seed plants living today; fossils are recorded since the early Cretaceous. Many species contain essential oils. Mostly woody plants (trees, shrubs, vines).
      - Order Magnoliales
        
        Family Winteraceae
        A small family showing many primitive features; limited to South East Asia and the Pacific.
        Tasmannia lanceolata (Tasmanian pepper)
        
        Family Illiciaceae
        A small family distributed in East Asia.
        Illicium verum (Star anise)
        
        Family Annonaceae
        A tropical and subtropical family (2100 species) that contains several exotic fruits, e.g. Cherimoya (Annona cherimola).
        Monodora myristica (Calabash nutmeg)
        Xylopia aethiopica (Negro pepper)
        
        Family Myristicaceae
        A small family of about 250 species.
        Myristica fragrans (Nutmeg)
        
        Family Canellaceae
        A tiny family of 16 tropical trees.
        Canella winterana (White cinnamon)
      - Order Laurales
        
        Family Lauraceae
        A large family, whose 2250 species are dominantly distributed over tropics and subtropics. Trees and shrubs. Many species contain essential oils made up from phenylpropanoids and terpenoids.
        Cinnamomum burmannii (Indonesian cinnamon)
        Cinnamomum camphora (Chinese camphor tree)
        Cinnamomum cassia (Cassia)
        Cinnamomum loureiroi (Vietnamese cinnamon)
        Cinnamomum tamala (Indian bay leaf)
        Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Ceylonese cinnamon)
        Laurus nobilis (Bay leaf)
        Lindera benzoin (Spice bush)
        Litsea glaucescens (Mexican bay-leaf)
        Ocotea quixos (American cinnamon)
        Sassafras albidum (Sassafras)
        Umbellularia californica (Californian bay-leaf)
        
        Family Monimiaceae
        450 species; closely related to the previous family.
        Peumus boldus (Boldo leaf)
      - Order Piperales
        
        Family Saururaceae
        Houttuynia cordata (Chameleon plant)
        
        Family Piperaceae
        A tropical family of 1400 species. Most species are woody vines.
        Peperomia pseudoalpina (Tequelite)
        Piper auritum (Mexican pepper-leaf)
        Piper sarmentosum (Wild betel pepper)
        Piper cubeba (Cubeb pepper)
        Piper longum (Long pepper)
        Piper nigrum (Black pepper)
      - Order Aristolochiales
        
        Family Aristolochiaceae
        600 species, mostly of tropical or subtropical distribution. Genus Aristolochia is best known for its sophisticated flower traps.
        Asarum europaeum (Asarabacca)
      - Order Ranunculales = Ranales
        
        Family Ranunculaceae
        A large family (2000 species, mostly herbs or shrubs) of the temperate zones of the Northern hemisphere. Most species contain alkaloids and are, thus, more or less poisonous, e.g., cockfoot (Ranunculus acer), Monk’s hood (Aconitum napellus) and adonis (Adonis vernalis, cardioactive glycosides).
        Nigella sativa (Nigella)
        
        Family Berberidaceae
        About 650 species, most of which are shrubs of the temperate Northern hemisphere.
        Berberis vulgaris (Barberry)
      - Order Papaverales
        
        Family Papaveraceae
        These herbs have milky juices (latex). Most of the 700 species are found in the temperate regions of the Northern hemisphere. Like in the previous family, alkaloids are common.
        Papaver somniferum (Poppy)
    - Subclass Caryophyllidae
      The Caryophyllidae represent an own line of evolution, starting from the Magnoliidae. 11000 species, most of which are annual or perennial herbs.
      - Order Caryophyllales = Centrospermae
        The most important order, containing about 90% of the subclass.
        
        Family Portulacaceae
        Portulaca oleracea (Purslane)
        
        Family Chenopodiaceae
        1500 species, many of which are common vegetables, e.g. beet (Beta vulgaris) and spinach (Spinacia oleracia); another example is Chenopodium quinoa, a pseudocereal often sold as Inca wheat.
        Chenopodium ambrosioides (Epazote)
        
        Family Amaranthaceae
        This family (900 species, mostly herbs) is closely related to the former one. Besides some ornamentals, it contains a number of species with seeds high in protein and carbohydrate that are used as a pseudocereal.
        Celosia argentea var.. crista (Cockcrest)
      - Order Polygonales
        
        Family Polygonaceae
        About 800 species; a well-known member is buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum).
        Persicaria hydropiper (Water pepper)
        Persicaria odorata (Vietnamese coriander)
        Rumex acetosa (Sorrel)
    - Subclass Hamamelididae = Hamamelidae = Amentiferae
      This group, characterized by catkin flowers, is one of the oldest within the angiosperms. Excluding the Urticales, a group of difficult systematic status, the whole subclass contains a mere 1000 species. Common chemical characteristics of the Hamamelididae include abundance of polyphenols, tannins and pentacyclic triterpenes. The Hamamelididae are known since the late Cretaceous and form the basis of the second main group, which encompasses all the following dicots.
      Most species are trees or shrubs of the temperate Northern Hemisphere; examples include oak (Quercus robur) and walnut (Juglans regia).
      - Order Myricales
        
        Family Myricaceae
        Only family of order Myricales. Trees and shrubs with essential oils, which is very uncommon within the subclass.
        Myrica gale (Gale)
    - Subclass Rosidae
      The Rosidae are the largest subclass of the angiosperms. Trees, shrubs and herbs. Many important fruits and vegetables.
      - Order Saxifragales
        
        Family Crassulaceae
        Herbs of the Northern hemisphere, typically with thick, succulent leaves (1400 species).
        Sedum reflexum (Reflexed stonecrop)
      - Order Rosales
        
        Family Rosaceae
        The only family of the order Rosales contains about 3000 species, many of which are well-known. The first subfamily, Maloideae, contains apple (Malus domesticus) and pear (Pyrus communis), the second subfamily, Prunoideae, contains apricot (Armeniaca vulgaris), plum (Prunus domestica), peach (Persica vulgaris) and many more. The third subfamily, Rosoideae, contains, beside rose and her relatives, several herbs, e.g. strawberry (Fragaria magna).
        Prunus mahaleb (Mahaleb cherry)
        Prunus dulcis (Almond)
        Rosa damascena (Rose)
        Sanguisorba minor (Salad burnet)
      - Order Fabales = Leguminosae
        An important order, whose species share a common fruit morphology. Many species live in symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria of genus Rhizobium. Wattles and mimosa are further examples.
        
        Family Caesalpiniaceae
        A family of about 2000 members, most of which are tropical or subtropical trees or shrubs. Senna (Cassia senna) is a well-known example.
        Tamarindus indica (Tamarind)
        
        Family Mimosaceae
        Acacia victoriae (Wattleseed)
        
        Family Fabaceae = Papilionaceae
        The huge pea family (9000 species) contain several most important vegetables: Pea (Pisum sativum), bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), lentil (Lens culinaris). Their seeds are nutritious and rich in protein; the necessary nitrogen comes from the symbiotic bacteria.
        Arachis hypogaea (Peanut)
        Clitoria ternatea (Butterfly pea)
        Crotalaria longirostrata (Chepil)
        Glycyrrhiza glabra (Licorice)
        Trigonella caerulea (Blue Fenugreek)
        Trigonella foenum-graecum (Fenugreek)
        Dipteryx odorata (Tonka bean)
      - Order Proteales
        An isolated, difficult to classify order with only one family. Trees and shrubs of the Southern hemisphere, particularily South Africa and Australia.
        
        Family Proteaceae
        Macadamia integrifolia (Macadamia)
      - Order Myrtales
        
        Family Myrtaceae
        3000 woody species, most of which grow in the tropics or in Australia. Essential oils rich in terpenoids.
        Eugenia polyantha (Indonesian bay-leaf)
        Myrtus communis (Myrtle)
        Pimenta dioica (Allspice)
        Pimenta racemosa (Bay Rum)
        Syzyium aromaticum (Clove)
        Backhousia citriodora (Lemon myrtle)
        
        Family Punicaceae
        Two species.
        Punica granatum (Pomegranate)
      - Order Rutales
        
        Family Rutaceae
        Another family characterized by essential oils. The fruits of genus Citrus have a unique morphology.
        Citrus aurantifolia (Lime)
        Citrus bergamia (Bergamot orange)
        Citrus hystrix (Kaffir lime)
        Citrus medica (Citron)
        Citrus sinensis (Orange)
        Citrus limon (Lemon)
        Murraya koenigii (Curry leaf)
        Ruta graveolens (Rue)
        Zanthoxylum piperitum (Sichuan pepper)
        
        Family Burseraceae
        Boswellia sacra (Frankincense)
        
        Family Anacardiaceae
        Many of the about 600 species contain severe skin irritants. Nonetheless, there are a few important cultigens in this family, e.g., pistachio (Pistacia vera) and cashew (Anacardium occidentale).
        Buchanania lanzan (Chironji)
        Mangifera indica (Mango)
        Rhus coriaria (Sumac)
        Pistacia lentiscus var.. chia (Mastic)
        Schinus terebinthifolius (Pepper rosé)
      - Order Sapindales
        
        Family Irvingiaceae
        Irvingia gabonensis (Wild mango)
      - Order Geraniales
        
        Family Geraniaceae
        Pelargonium spp. (Scented perlargoniums)
        
        Family Tropaeolaceae
        A quite small family (80 species) of South America. Despite similar constituents, there are no phylogenetic relations to the Brassicaceae family.
        Tropaeolum majus (Nasturtium)
      - Order Santalales
        An order of 2000 species of predominantly tropical distribution. Most species are semi-parasites, e.g., misteltoe (Viscum album, Loranthaceae).
        
        Family Santalaceae
        Santalum album (Sandalwood)
      - Order Araliales = Apiales
        
        Family Araliaceae
        The family comprises about 700 species, most of which live in the temperate to subtropical zones of Asia and Northern America.
        Panax ginseng (Ginseng)
        
        Family Apiaceae = Umbelliferae
        Herbaceous plants of temperate climates (3000 species, many of which are cultivated). Besides essential oils rich in terpenoids and phenylpropanoids, poly-ynes (sometimes in dangerous quantities) and phototoxic furanocoumarins are typical for the family. Phthalides and the alkaloid coniin (hemlock, Conium maculatum) are synthetized via poly-ynes. Carrot (Daucus carota) is one of many species used as vegetables, and most probably the extinct spice Silphion belonged here, too.
        Angelica archangelica (Angelica)
        Anethum graveolens (Dill)
        Anthriscus cerefolium (Chervil)
        Apium graveolens (Celery)
        Bunium persicum (Black cumin)
        Carum carvi (Caraway)
        Coriandrum sativum (Coriander)
        Crithmum maritimum (Samphire)
        Cryptotaenia japonica (Mitsuba)
        Cuminum cyminum (Cumin)
        Eryngium foetidum (Long Coriander)
        Ferula assa-foetida (Asafetita)
        Foeniculum vulgare (Fennel)
        Levisticum officinale (Lovage)
        Myrrhis odorata (Cicely)
        Petroselinum crispum (Parsley)
        Pimpinella anisum (Anise)
        Smyrnium olusatrum (Alexanders)
        Trachyspermum copticum (Ajwain)
        Trachyspermum roxburghianum (Radhuni=Ajmud)
    - Subclass Asteridae = Synandrae
      A large subclass of advanced and ecologically successful plants, which have evolved from Rosidae-like predecessors. Almost all of the 27000 species belong to one family, Asteraceae. Alternative classification schemes include the whole Lamiidae subclass and part of Cornidae into the Asteridae.
      - Order Asterales
        
        Family Asteraceae = Compositae
        A huge family (25000 species), probably the most advanced of all dicots. The tiny flowers are clustered together to larger units, which simulate a big flower. In the subfamily Lactucoideae, almost all species contain a white, milky juice (latex); examples are dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) or lettuce (Lactuca sativa). The second large subfamily, Asteroideae, encompasses several important cultigens: sunflower (Helianthus annuus), artichoke (Cyanara scolymus) and many ornamentals.
        Essential oils are mostly restricted to a few tribes (e.g. Anthemideae with chamomile Matricaria chamomilla).
        Artemisia abrotanum (Southernwood)
        Artemisia dracunculus (Tarragon)
        Artemisia vulgaris (Mugwort)
        Carthamus tinctorius (Safflower)
        Porophyllum tagetoides (Pepicha)
        Porophyllum ruderale (Killi = Quillquiña)
        Saussurea lappa (Putchuk)
        Spilanthes acmella (Paracress)
        Stevia rebaudiana (Sweetleaf)
        Tagetes erecta (Marigold)
        Tagetes lucida (Mexican tarragon)
        Tagetes minuta (Huacatay)
        Tanacetum vulgare (Tansy)
        Tridax coronpifolia (Hierba de conejo)
    - Subclass Dilleniidae
      Intermediately advanced subclass; there are obvious parallels to the Rosidae. The subclass contains about 25000 species (herbs, shrubs, trees) distributed over all continents.
      - Order Violales = Cistales = Bixales
        
        Family Flacourtiaceae
        1300 species, typically tropical trees. This is one of the more primitive families in the subclass.
        Pangium edule (Kepanyang = Pangi)
        
        Family Bixaceae
        A South American family of only two members.
        Bixa orellana (Annatto)
      - Order Cucurbitales
        
        Family Cucurbitaceae
        Most of the more than 600 species are climbing herbs with tendrils growing in the tropical or subtropical zones. There are several well-known cultigens, like cucumber (Cucumis sativa), various sweet-tasting melons (honeydew melon, muskmelon, cantaloupe, Cucumis melo) and water melon (Citrullus lanatus).
        Cucurbita pepo (Oilseed pumpkin)
      - Order Capparales = Cruciales
        An important order; its members are distinguished by 4-fold flower symmetry. The most characteristic constituents of the order are sulfur compounds, e.g., mustard oil glycosides (glucosinolates).
        
        Family Capparidaceae = Capparaceae
        800 species: Trees and shrubs of almost always tropical or subtropical distribution.
        Capparis spinosa (Caper)
        
        Family Brassicaceae = Cruciferae
        The cabbage family contains almost 3000 species, most of which are herbs growing in temperate regions of the Northern hemisphere. Apart from spices and oil plants, several vegetables are to be named, e.g., cabbage (Brassica oleraceae).
        Alliaria petiolata (Garlic mustard)
        Armoracia rusticana (Horseradish)
        Brassica nigra (Black mustard)
        Eruca sativa (Rocket)
        Lepidium sativum (Garden Cress)
        Nasturtium officinale (Water cress)
        Sinapis alba (White mustard)
        Sisymbrium officinale (Wild rocket)
        Wasabia japonica (Wasabi)
        
        Family Moringaceae
        Moringa oleifera (Horseradish tree)
      - Order Malvales = Columniferae
        
        Family Dipterocarpaceae
        About 400 species, which are rainforest trees of the paleotropics.
        Dryobalanops aromatica (Sumatra camphor tree)
        
        Family Malvaceae
        About 1500 species, most of which are herbs, though some are woody plants, make the mallow family the largest family of its order. The dominant chemical feature are mucilaginous polysaccharides, e.g., in marshmallow (Althea officinalis) or the African vegetable, okra (Hibiscus esculentus).
        Abelmoschus moschatus (Ambrette)
        Hibiscus sabdariffa (Roselle)
      - Order Urticales
        A group difficult to classify; by flower anatomy, they parallel the Hamamelididae, but in other respect, particularily regarding chemistry, they fit better here into the Dilleniidae. A well-known family of that order is the nettle family with stinging nettle (Urtica dioica).
        
        Family Cannabaceae
        A tiny family of three species, of which hemp (Cannabis sativa) is the most famous.
        Humulus lupulus (Hop)
      - Order Euphorbiales = Tricoccae
        This order shows interesting chemical analogies to the Fabales; consequently, some authorities favour its inclusion into the Rosidae subclass.
        
        Family Euphorbiaceae
        The large spurge family (7500 species) is chiefly distributed over the tropics, although some members are herbs of temperate climate. There is a large variety of different and quite efficient phytotoxins in the family (irritant diterpene esters, various alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides and extremely toxic proteins of ricin-type), but nevertheless, some species are important cultigens: Cassava (manioc, Manihot esculenta), castor (Ricinus communis) and the ornamental poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima).
        Aleurites moluccana (Kemiri)
        Ricinodendron heudelotii (Njangsa)
      - Order Theales
        An order with several rather primitive morphologic features. A pivotal chemical feature is accumulation of tannines, e.g., in the tea shrub Camellia sinensis
        
        Family Clusiaceae = Guttiferae
        The family contains about 1000 tropical trees and shrubs. Many species produce latices, balms or other exudates. The aril of the fruits of Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen) is edible (and indeed delicious).
        Garcinia atroviridis (Asam gelugur)
        Garcinia cambogia (Goraka)
        Garcinia indica (Kokam)
    - Subclass Cornidae
      A small subclass (10000 species), defined more by chemical than by morphological criteria. Less recent books often place these plants into various other subclasses, mostly Asteridae and Dilleniidae
      - Order Dipsacales
        
        Family Caprifoliaceae
        About 500 trees and shrubs
        Sambucus nigra (Elder)
        
        Family Valerianaceae
        About 360 species, mostly Northern temperate herbs. Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) is a widely known soporific.
        Nardostachys jatamansi (Spikenard)
      - Order Ericales = Bicornes
        
        Family Ericaceae
        The 2500 species of the heather family are mostly shrubs, often dwarf shrubs, of the temperate Northern hemisphere. As most typical constituents, they contain a variety of polyphenolic compounds, e.g., glycosides (phenol heterosides) and condensed tannines. Several members of genus Rhododendron are popular ornamentals, although they form toxic diterpenes which accumulate in the nectar (mad honey disease).
        Gaultheria procumbens (Wintergreen)
        Ledum palustre (Marsh tea)
      - Order Gentianales = Contortae
        
        Family Asclepiadaceae
        Mondia whitei (White ginger)
        
        Family Rubiaceae
        Most of the 6500 species are tropical or subtropical trees and shrubs, although the few temperate family members are often herbs. The most important example is coffee (Coffea arabica).
        Galium odoratum (Woodruff)
      - Order Oleales
        
        Family Oleaceae
        A family of about 800 trees and shrubs.
        Olea europaea (Olive)
    - Subclass Lamiidae = Tubiflorae
      A highly advanced subclass, often featuring flowers with sophisticated adaption to pollinating insects. About 23000 species. Classification is difficult, and there are various conventions about orders and families.
      - Order Boraginales
        
        Family Boraginaceae
        Herbs, shrubs and trees; about 2000 species distributed world-wide. Chemically, the family is characterized by silicic acid and the dangerous pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which are potent hepatotoxins and cocarcinogens prohibiting any culinary usage of most species. Essential oils are very rare.
        Alkanna tinctoria (Alkanet)
        Borago officinalis (Borage)
        Heliotropium arborescens (Heliotrop)
      - Order Solanales
        
        Family Solanaceae
        A large fraction of the 2300 species of the nightshade family contains alkaloids; few species are nontoxic. A well-known example is Deadly Nightshade (Atropa belladonna). The pungent principle of chile is structurally related to alkaloids, but hardly toxic by oral route.
        Capsicum annuum (Paprika)
        Capsicum frutescens (Chile)
        Solanum centrale (Australian bush tomato)
      - Order Lamiales
        
        Family Lamiaceae = Labiatae
        A highly advanced, quite homogeneous family of 3200 species. Most species are annual or perennial herbs or woody (dwarf) shrubs. Odorous monoterpenoids are typical constituents of the essential oils, furthermore the plants often contain bitter diterpenes and triterpenes (often called pseudo-tannines).
        Agastache foeniculum (Anise hyssop)
        Calamintha nepeta (Calamint)
        Elsholtzia blanda (Lomba)
        Elsholtzia ciliata (Vietnamese balm)
        Elsholtzia fruticosa (Shrubby Mint)
        Glechoma hederacea (Ground ivy)
        Hyssopus officinalis (Hyssop)
        Lavandula angustifolia (Lavender)
        Majorana hortensis (Marjoram)
        Melissa officinalis (Lemon balm)
        Mentha piperita (Peppermint)
        Mentha pulegium (Pennyroyal)
        Mentha spicata (Spearmint)
        Monarda didyma (Bergamot)
        Ocimum basilicum (Basil)
        Origanum vulgare (Oregano)
        Perilla frutescens (Perilla)
        Plectranthus amboinicus (Coleus)
        Poliomintha longiflora (Mexican oregano)
        Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemary)
        Salvia officinalis (Sage)
        Satureja hortensis (Savory)
        Thymus vulgaris (Thyme)
        
        Family Verbenaceae
        Closely related to the former family, but many of the 2600 species are trees or shrubs. Example: Teak tree (Tectona grandis).
        Lippia adoensis (Koseret)
        Lippia citriodora (Lemon verbena)
        Lippia dulcis (Aztec sweetherb)
        Lippia graveolens (Mexican oregano)
        Vitex agnus-castus (Chaste tree)
      - Order Scrophulariales
        Related to and sometimes merged with the previous order, Lamiales
        
        Family Scrophulariaceae
        An important family of 3000 species, mostly herbs growing in temperate climates. Several species are partial parasites.
        Castilleja lanata (Hierba de conejo)
        Limnophila aromatica (Rice paddy herb)
        
        Family Pedaliaceae
        A small family of 50 mostly tropic species. Herbs or woody shrubs.
        Sesamum indicum (Sesame)
  - Class Liliatae = Liliopsida = Monocotyledoneae
    The monocots are the second class of seed plants (50000 species). Their predecessors probably were dicots similar to today’s Magnoliidae.
    Botanists divide the class in five subclasses, of which the Alismatidae (no examples in this index) are a tiny, very primitive group and the Arecidae are difficult to classify; the remaining three subclasses (Liliidae, Zingiberidae und Commelinidae) form a series of increasing development and specialization. Common features include one cotyledon, three-fold symmetry in flowers and often parallel venation.
    - Subclass Liliidae = Liliiflorae
      The archetypal and also largest (25000 species) subclass of the Liliatae. Herbs (often perennial, with bulbs or rhizomes); rarely developing wood. Distributed over all continents.
      - Order Asparaginales
        
        Family Alliaceae
        500 species, all of which are herbs forming subterranean bulbs. S-alkyl-L-cystein sulfoxides are the most typical constituents.
        Allium ascalonicum (Shallot)
        Allium cepa (Onion)
        Allium sativum (Garlic)
        Allium schoenoprasum (Chives)
        Allium ursinum (Bear’s garlic)
        Allium wallachii (Jimbu)
      - Order Liliales
        
        Family Iridaceae
        The family (1400 species) contains innumerous ornamentals.
        Crocus sativus (Saffron)
      - Order Orchidales = Microspermae = Gynandrae
        
        Family Orchidaceae
        A huge family with 20000 species, most of which grow in the tropics. Very few species are of use to humans (except ornamentals). Often epiphytes; all species feature endotrophous mykorrhiza; several species are heterotrophous, lacking chlorophyll.
        Vanilla planifolia (Vanilla)
    - Subclass Zingiberidae
      A smaller subclass (3800 species), intermediate between the Liliidae and the Commelinidae. A well-known example is the pineapple (Ananas comosus).
      - Order Zingiberales = Scitamimeae = Arillatae
        The order encompasses the ginger family (Zingiberaceae) and the banana family (Musaceae).
        
        Family Zingiberaceae
        The ginger family contains several important medical plants. 1500 species, typically tropical perennials, often with large rhizomes. Essential oils are common, consisting both of terpenoids and phenylpropanoids.
        Aframomum citratum (Mbongo)
        Aframomum melegueta (Grains of paradise)
        Alpinia galanga (Greater galanga)
        Amomum subulatum (Black Cardamom)
        Boesenbergia pandurata (Fingerroot)
        Curcuma longa (Turmeric)
        Curcuma zedoaria (Zedoary)
        Elettaria cardamomum (Green cardamom)
        Etlingera elatior (Torch ginger)
        Kaempferia galanga (Lesser galanga)
        Zingiber officinale (Ginger)
    - Subclass Commelinidae = Farinosae
      A large subclass of 15000 species. The endosperms contains much starch, and consequently many species are cultivated for cereals.
      - Order Poales = Glumiflorae = Graminales
        
        Family Poaceae = Gramineae
        The grass family encompasses nearly all important cereals, rice (Oryza sativa) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) being the most important. 8000 species found all over the world.
        Cymbopogon citratus (Lemon grass)
    - Subclass Arecidae = Spadiciflorae = Spathiflorae
      The last subclass of Liliatae; 6500 species with large, fern- or palmlike leaves, often without parallel venation. Systematics are unclear; possibly, the four orders should be divided into new subclasses.
      - Order Pandanales
        
        Family Pandanaceae
        A paleotropic family of 800 trees and shrubs.
        Pandanus amaryllifolius (Pandanus leaves)
        Pandanus odoratissimus (Pandanus flowers)
      - Order Arales
        
        Family Araceae
        The 1800 species of the arum family are mostly herbs; some of them form rhizomes rich in starch and are used as vegetables. Many arums contain effective contact poisons and irritants. With the exception of flag, essential oils do not occur.
        Acorus calamus (Sweet flag = calamus)
        Colocasia gigantea (Giant Elephant’s Ears)
      - Order Arecales
        
        Family Arecaceae = Palmae
        The palm family (3500 species) is distributed pantropically; it is a very old group known since the Cretaceous. Several species yield vegetable oils, e.g. coconut or the African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis).
        Cocos nucifera (Coconut)